The EU

The EU submitted an initial combined ‘Paris pledge’ to the UN for the whole of the EU on greenhouse gas reductions, but each EU State must pledge individual more ambitious ‘Nationally Determined Contributions’ by end 2020, starting at a UN Climate Summit in New York on 23^rd Sept 2019. For an example of a shortfall see the UK page. For the effect on greenhouse gas and air pollution see sections below for transport, industry, agriculture etc.

The EU monitors progress on emissions, renewables and energy efficiency at an annual european semester and reports to the UN regularly. However Greenpeace reports that the EU ‘strategic agenda’ is more of a collection of buzzwords than an emergency response to humanity’s greatest threat.” The EU leaders are due to endorse the updated plans on 20 and 21 June, and look unlikely to offer sufficiently ambitious plans for 2019 COP in Chile in December.

“The body of EU environmental policy and regulation is very advanced and comprehensive…” according to Client Earth’s Briefing of March 2019 (p3). However it points out that Europe’s environment is rapidly deteriorating.

“Strong legislative and policy frameworks are not providing the results they should because they are not properly implemented.”

”.. the lack of implementation of EU environmental laws also erodes the rule of law and public trust in both national authorities and EU institutions.”

The means by which the EU delivers greenhouse gas and pollution reduction actions across all member states, are:

the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS), administered by the EU centrally.
the Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF), governed by the Kyoto Protocol separately
the Effort-Sharing Decision, administered by each country and monitored by the EU.

The EU strengthened its ‘2030 Framework’ in Dec 2018 for the ETS and Effort Sharing sectors. And the expected effects of this 2030 Framework are detailed in EU Directorate General Climate Action scenarios. The framework sets three key targets:

At least 40% cuts in greenhouse gas emissions(from 1990 levels)
At least 32% share for renewable energy by 2030 (The Revised Renewable Energy Directive)
At least 32.5% improvement in energy efficiency by 2030 against predictions of no action (The revised Energy Efficiency Directive (EU) 2018/2002)

However Climate Action Tracker’s analysis of the 2030 Framework actions are that they:
“would still be far from 1.5°C compatible action. Achieving this would need to build on the reform of the EU ETS, the adoption of the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD), as well as the political agreement on increasing renewable energy and energy efficiency targets for 2030.”

THE EMISSION TRADING SYSTEM (ETS)

– Aviation, Power and Industry are within the ETS and incur 45% of EU Greenhouse Gases. The Emission Trading System ETS is a ‘cap and trade’ system, with the total ‘cap’ of allowed emissions reducing regularly. “Within the cap, companies receive or buy emission allowances which they can trade with one another as needed. They can also buy limited amounts of international credits from emission-saving projects around the world.“

AVIATION - click here

Internal Flights within the European Economic Area (EEA), ie the 28 EU Member States, plus Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, have their Greenhouse Gas emissions covered by the ETS. The legislation, adopted in 2008, applies to EU and non-EU airlines alike, although only within the EU.
International Aviation is governed by the UN’s International Civil Aviation Organisations ICAO. The EU is not a member (whilst the UK is a council member), so the EU has less influence than the UK on International Aviation. A voluntary scheme – CORSIA has been agreed by the ICAO, which merely aims to stabilise CO₂ emissions at 2020 levels by requiring volunteer airlines to offset the growth of their emissions from 2021.

International aviation emissions are not restricted until 2021, and then merely voluntary offsets. According to analysis published by Carbon Brief aviation could consume a quarter of the global carbon budget for limiting global temperature rise to 1.5C by 2050.

The UK could show leadership by introducing policies that reduce flights and to demand that ICAO acts in the context of a Climate Emergency.

In Sept 2019 EUActive reported that “EU member states should participate in an initial voluntary phase of a new carbon offsetting scheme developed by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) – but not if it hampers the EU’s own efforts, transport ministers were told on Friday (20 September).“

POWER/ENERGY - click here

Fossil fuel and nuclear power will need to be reduced to 68% of all energy across the EU, due to the target for Renewable Energy of 32% by 2030 in The Revised Renewable Energy Directive (EU) 2018/2001 (which is outside of the Emissions Trading System). This covers “energy efficiency throughout the full energy chain, including energy generation, transmission, distribution and end-use….” to minimise the total energy required.
Fossil Fuel power stations The Government frequently claims that the carbon intensity of UK energy has reduced due to UK Leadership – and local authorities, including Haringey also imply that they brought this about.
Greta Thurberg, in her speech to UK Parliamentarians on 23^rd April 2019 was well aware of the real reason for the improvement:
“And the main reason for this reduction [37% UK territorial emissions] is not a consequence of climate policies, but rather a 2001 EU directive on air quality that essentially forced the UK to close down its very old and extremely dirty coal power plants and replace them with less dirty gas power stations. And switching from one disastrous energy source to a slightly less disastrous one will of course result in a lowering of emissions.”
The Large Combustion Plants Directive 2001/80/EC was the Directive referred to. This was actually aimed at air pollution, but has brought about significant carbon reductions just as a co-benefit. “Control of emissions from large combustion plants – those whose rated thermal input is equal to or greater than 50 MW – plays an important role in the Union’s efforts to combat acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone as part of the overall strategy to reduce air pollution.”
Nuclear ’State aid’ is prohibited to prevent States “from distorting competition in the internal market and affecting trade between Member States in a way which is contrary to the common interest” and the European Commissioner has been active in ruling whether support for new Nuclear Power stations is allowed or not.
In the case of Hinkley B the Commissioner ruled in October 2014 that “the state aid provided will remain proportionate to the objective pursued”. In July 2018 the General Court of the European Union dismissed an objection against this decision by the Austrian Government.

But far too much coal is still planned. Sandbach May 2019 report ‘Just Transition or Just Talk‘.

INDUSTRY - click here

The pie chart below shows the sources of Carbon dioxide EU wide in 2017 with 64.8% from power stations, 7.9% production of cement clinker, 7.4% Mineral oil and gas refineries as the top three emitters.
Harmful industrial emissions are covered by the Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU which “aims to achieve a high level of protection of human health and the environment…” The legislation covers: energy, metal production and processing, minerals, chemicals, waste management pulp and paper production, slaughterhouses and the intensive rearing of poultry and pigs.
The Directive “ensures that the public has a right to participate in the decision-making process, and to be informed of its consequences, by having access to permit applications, permits and the results of the monitoring of releases.”
The European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register’s (E-PRTR) is a tool to monitor pollutants and can be searched. Search from here for emitters, different areas and up to 2017.
The description of Greenhouse Gases at the E-PRTR accords no sense of panic about the climate change dangers of carbon dioxide and methane:
Carbon Dioxide “The main environmental concern with respect to carbon dioxide is the significant role this compound plays as a greenhouse gas influencing climate change. Together with certain other greenhouse gases, emissions of CO₂ are controlled in a number of developed countries through the UNFCCC’s Kyoto protocol.”
Methane “Natural levels of methane in the environment are not detrimental to health….” And “its global warming potential is 25 times that of carbon dioxide over a 100 year time horizon according to the IPCC 4th assessment report. As a volatile organic compound (VOC) at the global scale methane also contributes to the formation of harmful ground level ozone which can cause damage to human health and plants.”
Each Member State has the task of granting permits to installations undertaking the industrial activities. In the UK the Government’s Industrial Decarbonising and Energy Efficiency Roadmap to 2050 covers Iron and Steel, Chemicals, Oil Refining, Food and Drink, Pulp and Paper, Ceramics, Cement, Glass.

The Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU has not stopped new fossil fuel mining and use for industry. For instance the UK has given permission to a new undersea deep coal mine in Cumbria to feed the UK and European steel industry.

Greenpeace objected to the mine, saying it could not be justified when it was possible to recycle steel using plants supplied with electricity.

LAND USE LAND USE CHANGE AND FORESTRY (LULUCF)

From May 2018 Member States have to ensure that greenhouse gas emissions from land use, land use change or forestry are offset by at least an equivalent removal of CO₂ from the atmosphere in the period 2021 to 2030, under the Land use and forestry regulation for 2021-2030.The LULUCF sector contributes to the EU’s 2030 emission reduction target.

“This will help farmers to develop climate-smart agriculture practices and support foresters through greater visibility for the climate benefits of wood products, which can store carbon sequestered from the atmosphere and substitute for emission-intensive materials.”

Forest management is the main source of biomass for energy and wood production and following criticism that emissions from biomass in energy production were not accounted for under previous EU law.

THE EFFORT SHARING DECISION

Housing, agriculture (excluding forests), waste, transport (excluding aviation) are not in the ETS or LULUCF, and are therefore in the Effort Sharing Decision. Together they incur 55% of Greenhouse Gases and have an overall target reduction of -37% from 2005 to 2030.

The Effort Sharing Decision consists of binding annual targets for each EU Member State for cutting emissions for sectors not covered by ETS (by 2020 compared to 2005) eg for the UK (whilst in the EU). Progress is monitored by the Commission every year.

HOUSING and BUILDINGS - click here

Reducing energy demand. The revised Energy Efficiency Directive (EU) 2018/2002 sets a 2030 target of 32.5% reduction against no action, also with a possible upward revision in 2023. “encourage long-term investments and long-term energy efficiency measures, such as the deep renovation of buildings with the long-term objective of facilitating the cost effective transformation of existing buildings into NZEBs [Nearly Zero Energy Buildings].“ (para 10)
Energy efficiency in new buildings The Energy Performance of Buildings Directive 2010/31/EU requires all new buildings to be nearly zero-energy by the end of 2020. All new public buildings must be nearly zero-energy by 2018. The Directive requires all EU countries to draw up lists of national financial measures to improve the energy efficiency of buildings” The UK may be in contravention of this directive.
‘Nearly zero-energy’ for new buildings is reported for each country – here. The UK’s Sept 2012 report INCREASING THE NUMBER OF NEARLY ZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS says: “The UK Government already has a target for all new homes in England to be ‘zero carbon’ from 2016 and an ambition for all new non-domestic buildings in England to be zero carbon from 2019.” However the UK Government cancelled the Zero Carbon regulations, in July 2015 leaving developers to continue building properties which waste heat over their lifetimes. It did not resubmit its targets, so the UK is in contravention of this directive.
Local renewable energy The Revised Renewable Energy Directive (EU) 2018/2001 has a target of 32% of energy overall to be from renewables by 2030. Although this includes industrial scale renewables it encourages small scale individual and business local renewables “puts the consumer at the centre of the energy transition with a clear right to produce own renewable energy”. It is being contravened by the UK removal of a statutory Export payment to new installations from 1^st April 2019.

AGRICULTURE - click here

Agriculture in Industrialised Nations is covered by the UN’s land-use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF), which is part of the Kyoto Protocol convention on Climate Change of 1997. The EU is a Party (as is the UK) to LULUCF, and is obliged to deliver targets for reductions of Greenhouse Gas emissions.
The targets of the Kyoto Protocol cover emissions of:
• Carbon dioxide (CO2);
• Methane (CH4);
• Nitrous oxide (N2O);
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs);
• Perfluorocarbons (PFCs);
• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

FORESTRY - click here

Forests in Industrialised Nations are also covered by the UN’s land-use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF), part of the Kyoto Protocol convention on Climate Change . The EU is a Party (as is the UK) to LULUCF, and is obliged to deliver targets for reductions of Greenhouse Gas emissions.

EU Forests and other wooded land cover account for more than 42 % of the EU’s surface, according to the report on the Commission Green Paper on forest protection and information in the EU of April 2011 (p17). This also stresses “the capacity of European forests to act as effective sinks for CO2, NH3 and NOX is still underexploited, and wood originating from sustainably managed forests may have sustained mitigation benefits, serving as a recyclable, carbon-rich substitute for energy intensive materials such as metal alloys, plastics and concrete that are widely used in construction and other industries.” (p7). Hence the EU has an obligation to encourage Governments around the world to protect their forests.
Forests in non industrialised countries are covered by the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) The EU web page on Forests says that the EU is calling for global deforestation to be halved by 2020 and halted by 2030. It is proposing that ways to reward developing countries that act to stop deforestation should be agreed internationally. It says that the EU is “also working with a number of timber-exporting countries to improve forest governance and ensure that timber imported from those countries is legally harvested. As of March 2013, no illegally harvested timber may be sold in the EU. “

WASTE - click here
The Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC sets the basic concepts and definitions of waste, recycling and recovery.
On 4 March 2019, the European Commission adopted a comprehensive report on the implementation of the Circular Economy Action Plan. It states that, in 2018, initiatives included:
“A Europe-wide EU Strategy for Plastics in the Circular Economy and annex to transform the way plastics and plastics products are designed, produced, used and recycled. By 2030, all plastics packaging should be recyclable.“ and “To reduce the leakage of plastics into the environment, the Commission has also adopted a new proposal on Port Reception Facilities, to tackle sea-based marine litter.”
The revised legislative framework on waste of July 2018 sets clear targets for reduction of waste
- A common EU target for recycling 65% of municipal waste by 2035;
- A common EU target for recycling 70% of packaging waste by 2030;
- There are also recycling targets for specific packaging materials eg:
  - Paper and cardboard: 85 %
  - Glass: 75 %
  - Plastic: 55 %
  - Wood: 30 %
- A binding landfill target to reduce landfill to maximum of 10% of municipal waste by 2035;
- Separate collection obligations are strengthened and extended to hazardous household waste (by end 2022), bio-waste (by end 2023), textiles (by end 2025).
- Minimum requirements are established for extended producer responsibility schemes to improve their governance and cost efficiency.
- Prevention objectives are significantly reinforced, in particular, requiring Member States to take specific measures to tackle food waste and marine litter as a contribution to achieve EU commitments to the UN Sustainability Development Goals.

TRANSPORT - click here

Passenger cars. According to the legislation in train for greenhouse gases’ emissions from transport “Cars are responsible for around 12% of total EU emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂)” From 2021, phased in from 2020, the EU fleet-wide average emission target for new cars will be 95 g CO₂/km. From 2021on, the average emissions of all newly registered cars of a manufacturer will have to be below the target.
Vans are responsible for around 2.5% of total EU emissions of carbon dioxide. From 2020 on, the EU fleet-wide average emission target will be 147 grams of CO₂per kilometre.
The EU web page on Transport also says that “public authorities are required to take account of life time energy use and CO₂ emissions when procuring vehicles.”
Heavy Duty vehicles. Reducing CO2 emissions from heavy-duty vehicles is a proposal for improvements in emissions which is yet to be passed into EU law.
“In 2025, the average CO2 emissions of new heavy duty vehicles will have to be 15% lower, compared to 2019. This target is mandatory and can be achieved using technologies that are already available on the market. In 2030, emissions have to be at least 30% lower. This target is aspirational, giving long-term direction. It will be reviewed in 2022 to incorporate additional information on the new technologies needed to meet this target.
As a first step, the CO₂ emission standards are proposed for large lorries, which account for 65% to 70% of all CO₂ emissions from heavy-duty vehicles. In 2022, the scope will be extended to include other vehicle types such as smaller lorries, buses, coaches and trailers.”
Fuels. The Fuel Quality Directive Directive 98/70/EC of 2009 requires a reduction of the greenhouse gas intensity of transport fuels by a minimum of 6% by 2020 from a 2010 baseline. The binding emission targets for manufacturers are set according to the average mass of their vehicles. From 2019 onwards, the penalty will be €95 for each g/km of exceedance.

SHIPPING and MARITIME - click here

The UN’s International Maritime Organisation (IMO) is the “agency with responsibility for the safety and security of shipping and the prevention of marine and atmospheric pollution by ships”. The UK is a member, and the EU is an ‘Intergovernmental Organization which has concluded an agreement of co-operation’.
“Maritime transport emits around 1000 million tonnes of CO₂ annually and is responsible for about 2.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions” (3^rdIMO GHG study).
Shipping is another cross-border sector not covered by pledges under the Paris Agreement, according to Carbon Brief in Feb 2019. However, in April 2018, flag states at the UN’s shipping agency agreed to a sector-wide goal to reduce absolute emissions 50% by 2050, compared to 2008 levels.
In Oct 2019 Politico reported on the 5 people tackling aviation and shipping emissions.
– Menno Snel, Dutch finance minister
– Karima Delli, MEP, Greens, France
– Henrik Hololei, director general of DG Move
– Michael O’Leary, Ryanair CEO
– Søren Skou, CEO of Maersk

CLEAN AIR

The EU has legislation for target levels of pollution and also for the sources of Air Pollution. It compiles high level data about the sources of Air Pollution, but the danger is very localised so sources that make up a small percentage at an EU level can be fatal at the place where they pollute the air.

For the resultant levels of pollution the Commission adopted a Clean Air Policy Package in December 2013, consisting of:

a new Clean Air Programme for Europe with new air quality objectives for the period up to 2030
a revised National Emission Ceilings Directive with stricter national emission ceilings for the six main pollutants
a proposal for a new Directive to reduce pollution from medium-sized combustion installations.

In Feb 2014 the European Commission took action against the UK (Defra) for persistent air pollution problems. Since then Client Earth has also taken action against Defra and the UK major cities, publishing “What do ClientEarth’s legal cases mean for local authority plans to deliver nitrogen dioxide compliance in England and Wales?” as a guide.

Polluted Air Sources: vehicles, industrial plants, subways and agriculture.

VEHICLES - click here

EU emission regulations for vehicles specify the maximum level of pollutants allowed in new vehicles. The levels, which are different for petrol and diesel vehicles form the basis of the London Ultra Low Emission Zone. These were relaxed when testing moved to ‘Real World’ and pollutant limits were raised for diesel so they would not fail and become unsaleable.
For Cars EU emission regulations for vehicles specify ‘Euro 5’ that reduced the emission of particulate matter from diesel cars from 25mg/km to 5mg/km and ‘Euro 6’ that mainly reduced the emissions of NOx from diesel cars, from 180mg/km to 80mg/km.” However, in Oct 2015, when the EU passed the legislation to bring in Real World Driving Emission (RWED) tests for car emission tests they also raised pollutant limits to 120mg/km so that diesel cars could continue to be sold.
EU Directive 2014/45/EU on periodic roadworthiness tests for motor vehicles and their trailers could incorporate much improved air quality tests during MOTs. The UK interpretation of the directive was due to come into UK law from May 2017, with implementation from May 2018. May not have happened.

INDUSTRY - click here

The Large Combustion Plants Directive 2001/80/EC was aimed at air pollution, though it has brought about significant carbon reductions just as a co-benefit. “Control of emissions from large combustion plants – those whose rated thermal input is equal to or greater than 50 MW – plays an important role in the Union’s efforts to combat acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone as part of the overall strategy to reduce air pollution.”

SUBWAYS - click here

A March 2016 EU study of exposure to particulates at Subway Stations explained that “People who commute using subways may be exposed to harmful air pollutants, such as particulate matter (PM). The study concluded that “Subway stations with platform sliding doors and good ventilation reduce passengers’ exposure to PM2.5” but no legislation is in place to protect subway passengers.

AGRICULTURE - click here

Air pollution from additional emissions ie secondary inorganic aerosols (SIA) and ammonium nitrate pollution. Eurostat monitors 28 agri-environmental indicators of environmental concerns relevant to the Common agricultural policy (CAP). In the case of the UK these emissions are blown from farms in the EU (as well as UK ones). Professor Jos Lelieveld, at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Germany, believes that “Across the UK, 48% of the premature deaths were ultimately the result of agricultural pollution.”
However Defra pressured MEPs to vote against reductions whilst fully aware of the dangers to health and lives, according to ‘Mitigation of UKs PM2.5 concentration‘ . In July 2016 Greens-efa reported that the revision of the National Emission Ceilings Directive up until 2030 had been finalised between the European Parliament and the Council:
“The big farming lobby successfully lobbied for far weaker limits on ammonia and succeeded in excluding methane entirely from the scope of the law...” Seb Dance MEP, Labour’s European spokesman on environment, and the Socialists and Democrats Group’s lead negotiator on the National Emissions Ceilings Directive, said: “More than a third of the UK’s air pollution is blown over the Channel, so a European-wide agreement is crucial…. “We need ambitious and binding limits on these toxic emissions to force governments across Europe to properly address what is now a public health crisis.”

CLEAN BEACHES

The EU web page on Eutrophication explains that the main contribution of human-introduced phosphate onto beaches and seas comes from domestic and industrial sewage and waste water. Run-off from land is also an important source of phosphate as it is a component of fertilizers. The predominant nitrogen load comes from diffuse sources on land, especially agricultural areas. Other sources of nitrogen include nitrogen gases (e.g. ammonium from manuring, nitrogen oxides from ships, which are transferred via the atmosphere to oceans through precipitation), aquaculture, waste water treatment plants, industrial water and adjacent oceans.

The Nitrates Directive(1991) aims to protect water quality across Europe by preventing nitrates from agricultural sources polluting ground and surface waters and by promoting the use of good farming practices.
The Urban Waste-Water Treatment Directive(1991) aims to protect the environment from the adverse effects of urban waste water discharges and discharges from certain industrial sectors.
The Water Framework Directive(2000) lays down a strategy to fight against the pollution of water, including adopting specific measures against pollution by individual pollutants or groups of pollutants presenting a significant risk to or via the aquatic environment.

Beach litter. The Marine Litter Database 2018 provides information for ‘lessons learned in compiling the first pan-European database’

EU support for Innovation

The European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT) “brings together leading universities, research labs and companies…” EIT:
· creates Knowledge and Innovation Communities (KICs)
· develops innovative products and services
· starts new companies
· trains a new generation of entrepreneurs

The European Research Area is “a unified area open to the world, in which scientific knowledge, technology and researchers circulate freely.”

The EU has a Commissioner for Research, Science and Innovation, Carlos Moedas, working with Mission Innovation

EU Finance for low carbon projects

European Investment Bank “The EIB is the European Union’s bank. ”we commit at least 25% of our lending portfolio to low-carbon and climate-resilient growth.”

“ We are the only bank owned by and representing the interests of the European Union Member States.”….. “As the largest multilateral borrower and lender by volume, we provide finance and expertise for sound and sustainable investment projects which contribute to furthering EU policy objectives” We work closely with other EU institutions to implement EU policy.”…… …..”we commit at least 25% of our lending portfolio to low-carbon and climate-resilient growth.”

The Energy Efficiency Financial Institutions Group (EEFIG) was set up to “to identify the barriers to the long-term financing for energy efficiency and propose policy and market solutions to them”.

A European Local ENergy Assistance (ELENA) facility is offering €97mill for residential building programmes.

Divesting from fossil fuel funding. Climate Action Tracker also suggests that “A complete divestment from fossil fuel investments, including in new natural gas infrastructure, as recently adopted by the Irish government (Reuters 2018b), is an example to be followed not only by the EU member states but also the European institutions.”

On the 7th June 2019 protesters lobbied the EIB headquarters in Luxembourg calling urgently for the bank to end its’ financial support of fossil fuel projects around the world.

THE EMISSION TRADING SYSTEM (ETS)

But far too much coal is still planned. Sandbach May 2019 report ‘Just Transition or Just Talk‘.

LAND USE LAND USE CHANGE AND FORESTRY (LULUCF)

THE EFFORT SHARING DECISION

CLEAN AIR

Polluted Air Sources: vehicles, industrial plants, subways and agriculture.

CLEAN BEACHES

EU support for Innovation

EU Finance for low carbon projects

The UK’s Sixth Carbon Budget

Climate Ambition? – somewhere, some time manyana

Retrofit and the Green Homes Grant

The new normal of face coverings

Emerging from the Emergency – Build Back Better

12 Green Ideas for Self Isolation

Events Around Highgate